PPP Notes - Climates and Foundations

CLIMATIC FOUNDATION ISSUES

 (These notes are compiled from AGS)

DESIGNING FOR COLD CLIMATES

 

• Cold and unheated climate conditions occur over the northern half of the United States and in mountainous regions.
• These conditions can be generally quantified as where the frost depth is 12 in. or greater.
• Designing foundations for these conditions is treated in a more typical manner, such as: providing a foundation below the frost depth, including a basement, and providing insulation on the exterior to reduce the chances of cold ground temperatures reaching the structure.

 

FROST ISSUES

 

• Detrimental frost action in soils is obviously limited to those areas of the United States where subfreezing temperatures occur on a regular basis and for extended periods of time.
• “Frost action” is the lateral or vertical movement of structures supported on or in the soil.
• Frozen soil is, in itself, not necessarily detrimental to the supported structures. 
• It becomes detrimental when, through the growth of ice lenses, the soil and whatever is resting on the soil above the ice lenses, heaves upward.
• This causes foundations and the structures supported by the foundations to distort and suffer distress.
• Other common problems are the heaving of sidewalks, pavements, steps, retaining walls, fence poles, and architectural features.
• The depth of frost penetration is directly related to the intensity and duration of the freezing conditions, a measure that is termed the freezing degree-day index.
• In milder climates in the United States, the local building codes might stipulate a frost protection depth for foundations of 12 in.
• In the northern portions of the United States, the frost protection depth might be 42 to 60 in. as required by local building codes.
• These guidelines are usually conservative, but there are situations where deeper frost protection depths are warranted.
• If the emergency entrance to a hospital is on the north side of the hospital, where the sun never warms the pavement adjacent to the building, and the pavement is kept 100 percent snow-free for safety reasons, then the frost penetration can easily.
• Carefully evaluate exposure conditions to see if a special condition exists.
• Grass and snow are very effective insulators for the ground below.
• Avoid the use of sloping exterior faces on grade beams or foundations that give the freezing forces something to push against when the frost heave situation develops.

 

DESIGNING FOR HOT, ARID CLIMATES

 

• Though classified as arid and overheated, severe desert climates in the United States typically have four distinct periods for determining comfort strategies.
• The hot dry season, occurring in late spring, early summer, and early fall, has dry, clear atmospheres that provide high insulation levels, high daytime air temperatures, very high sol-air temperatures, and large thermal radiation at night, producing a 30 to 40 degree F daily range.  Night temperatures may fall below the comfort limits and are useful for cooling.  Low humidity allows effective evaporative cooling.
• The hot humid season occurs in July and August.  In addition to high insulation, it is characterized by high dew point temperatures (above 55 degrees F), reducing the usefulness of evaporative cooling for comfort conditioning.  Cloudiness and haze prevent nighttime thermal reradiation, resulting in only a 20 degrees F or less daily range.  Lowest nighttime temperatures are frequently higher than the comfort limits.  Thus, refrigeration or dehumidification may be needed to meet comfort standards.
• The winter season typically has clear skies, cold nights, very low dew point temperatures, a daily range of nearly 40 degrees F, and the opportunity for passively meeting all heating requirements from isolation.
• The transitional or thermal sailing season occurs before and after the winter season and requires no intervention by environmental control systems.  The passive features of the building can extend this season.  Other desert climates have similar seasons but in different proportions and at cooler scales.

 

CONSTRUCTION DETAILS

 

• Capitalize on conditions climatic conditions by incorporating construction practices that respond in beneficial ways to the environment, including:
• Insulate coolant and refrigerant pipes from remote evaporative towers and condensers for their entire length.
• In hot locations, use roof construction similar to the cold climate roof details.
• Do not use exposed wood (especially in small cross sections) and many plastics, as they deteriorate from excessive heat and high ultraviolet exposure.
• Although vapor retarders may not be critical to control condensation, implement them as a building wrap or wind shield, both to control dust penetration and to avoid convective leaks from high temperature differentials.
• Avoid thermal bridges such as extensive cantilevered slabs.
• Radiant barriers and details appropriate to humid overheated climates are at least as effective as vapor retarders, but avoid holes in assembly where convection would leak their thermal advantage.
• Ventilate building skin (attic or roof, walls) to relieve sol-air heat transfer.

 

DESIGNING FOR HUMID CLIMATES

 

• Humid, overheated conditions are most severe along the Gulf Coast, but occur across the entire southeastern United States.
• Atmospheric moisture limits radiation exchange, resulting in daily temperature ranges less than 20 degrees F. 
• High insulation gives first priority to shading.
• Much of the overheated period is only a few degrees above comfort limits, so air movement can cool the body.
• Ground temperatures are generally too high for the Earth to be useful as a heat sink, although slab-on-grade floor mass is useful.
• The strategies are to resist solar and conductive heat gains and to take best advantage of ventilation.

PPP Notes - Reading Soils Reports

SOILS STUDIES AND REPORTS

 

READING A SOILS REPORT

 

• A geotechnical report helps the design team understand the site on which the structure is to be built.
• Most geotechnical reports contain the following information:
• Report Summary
• Project Information
• Exploration Methods
• Description of Soil and Groundwater Conditions
• Design Recommendations
• Construction Considerations
• Appendix
• Location Diagram
• Soil-boring or Test Pit Logs
• Soil Profiles
• Laboratory Test Results
• The report summary is generally one of two pages long, and provides the most salient information and recommendations of the report. 
• Use the summary as quick reference, but read the entire report for details and qualifications/limitations.
• Most reports are read within 30 minutes.
• Check and verify the project information and criteria (building height, structural loads, floor/basement levels, so on).
• The scope of the evaluation and recommendations are based on this information.
• Also, included in the report would be project information describing the building and site characteristics such as number of stories, building construction materials, foundation loadings, basement data if applicable, and grades.
• The exploration section defines how the geotechnical engineer obtained the soil information required to describe the foundation this would include number, location and depth of soil boring and tests pits, and laboratory and field-testing to be performed.
• The general soil and groundwater conditions include a general overview of the results of the geotechnical engineer’s tests.
• More detailed information is contained in the soil-boring and test pit logs, which can be reviewed when required.
• The design recommendations section is of greatest interest to the project design team, as it makes specific recommendations concerning the design of foundations, glade slab, walls, drainage requirements, and other key building components.
• Should be read together with the section on construction considerations, which identifies potential problems during construction that can be avoided or minimized by both the design team and contractor when everyone understands the challenges for the project.
• Often reports will provide a transverse section of the soil profile, combining the soil-boring information in a convenient picture.
• The section enables the reader to better understand approximately how the soil properties will vary across the site.

PPP Notes - Soils

SOILS DEFINITIONS: TERMS AND CLASSIFICATIONS

(These notes are compiled from AGS) 

CLAY

 

• Determined by the size of particles and composition.
• Chemically different from parent materials as a result of weathering.
• Typically inorganic.
• Grain sizes of less than .0002 in. in diameter.
• Exhibit cohesion and plasticity.
• Classified as stiff, medium, or soft, depending on moisture content.
• Make satisfactory bearing material under some conditions.
• Long-term settlement can sometimes control the allowable bearing pressure.
• Excavations of clay can have steep slopes for short periods of time.

 

SILT

 

• Silt consists of inorganic particles between .003 in. and .0002 in. in diameter.
• Fine-grained particles are similar in composition to the rocks from which they are derived, and are not plastic in nature.
• Organic silt is found on the bottom of lakes and river deltas.

 

SAND

 

• Classifications of sand vary from fine to coarse.
• Rock sizes range from .003 in. to .079 in. in diameter.
• Adequately compacted, sand makes an ideal bearing material.
• The coarser the sand, the higher the allowable bearing pressures.
• Fine sands are susceptible to becoming quick when subjected to unbalanced hydrostatic pressures, and may liquefy when they are loose, saturated, or subjected to seismic forces. 
• Settlement is usually immediate, with little long-term settlement.

 

GRAVEL

 

• Classifications of gravel vary from fine to coarse, and these unconsolidated rock fragments range from .75 in. to about 3 in.
• Except for gravels composed of shale, this material makes a good foundation material.
• Depending on the compactness and underlying material, very high bearing pressures are allowed by some building codes.

 

COBBLES

 

• Ranging in size from about 3 in. to about 10 in., these rock fragments can make reliable foundation-bearing materials.
• Is, however, difficult to properly compact when used for fill.
• Cobble-sized materials can interfere with pile driving and drilled-pier construction causing significant problems.

 

BOULDERS

 

• Typically classified as rock fragments greater than 10 in.
• Boulders are used as part of a fill mass if the voids between the boulders are filled with finer-grained sands and silts.
• These materials are generally not considered suitable for direct foundation support because of their size and shape, and the difficulty in excavating the material to desired shapes.
• As with cobbles, boulders can cause significant problems during construction.

 

BEDROCK

 

• Unbroken hard rock that is not over any other materials is considered bedrock.
• Depending upon its composition, it can be capable of withstanding extremely high bearing pressure.
• Desirable for foundations supporting high loads.
• If the rock has been weathered or is cracked, its bearing capacity may be compromised.
• Settlement of buildings on bedrock is primarily limited to the elastic settlement of the foundation.

 

RESIDUUM

 

• Residuum consists of soil derived from the in-place decomposition of bedrock materials.
• In general, these soils are more weathered near the surface, and gradually transition to a more rocklike material with depth.
• Where residual soils reveal evidence of the stratification and structure of the parent rock, they are known as saprolitic materials.

 

ALLUVIAL SOILS

 

• Because materials are eroded, transported, and deposited through the action of flowing water, these soils are typically loose and saturated, hence often are unsuitable for support of structures or pavements.

 

COLLUVIAL SOILS

 

• Because materials are transported by gravity, typically associated with landslides, these soils are generally irregular in composition and loose.
• They require improvement prior to being used to support buildings and pavements.

 

AEOLIAN SOILS

 

• These soils are transported and deposited by the wind.
• They consist of silt or sand-sized soils. 
• Loess, one of the more common types of Aeolian soils, is composed of fine-cemented silt.
• While this material is competent in place, it loses much of its strength when disturbed or recompacted.

 

TILL

 

• Till is a mixture of clay, silt, sand, gravel, and boulders deposited by glaciers.
• Consolidated tills that are well graded (indicated by a uniform distribution of particle size) are exceptionally strong and make excellent foundation strata.
• Loose tills can cause differential settlements if used as a bearing material.

 

LOAM

 

• This organic material, made up of hummus and sand, silt or clay, provides excellent material for agriculture but should not be used for foundations.
• Organic materials will settle a great deal over time, and even lightly loaded slabs on grade will settle if bearing on loam.

 

COHESIONLESS SOILS

 

• These types of soils consist of cobbles, gravels, sands, and nonplastic silts.
• Generally formed from the mechanical weathering of bedrock brought about by water, ice, heat, and cold.
• Typically composed of the same minerals as the parent rock.
• Strength of cohesionless materials is derived primarily from interparticle friction.

 

COHESIVE SOILS

 

• These types of soils contain clay minerals with an unbalanced chemical charge.
• Tend to attract water and bond together.
• Strength of cohesive materials is derived from a combination of these chemical bonds and from interparticle friction.

 

CONSOLIDATION

 

• When soils are subjected to loads, water within the void spaces initially supports the change in stress through an increase in pressure.
• Excess pressures gradually dissipate in proportion to the permeability of the soil.
• Coarse-grained materials drain rapidly, while finer-grained silts and clays drain more slowly.
• As the excess pore pressures dissipate, the void spaces compress and transfer the loads to the soil grains.
• The resulting reduction in volume over time is known as consolidations.

 

UNDERCONSOLIDATED SOILS

 

• Soils that have built up in river deltas and other water bodies are deposited in a very loose state.
• These soils are often underconsolidated, in that they have never experienced stresses equal to or greater than current overburden stresses.
• These materials tend to consolidate under their owner weight over time, until all excess pore pressures have been dissipated and the soils become “normally consolidated.”
• Foundations bearing on underconsolidated soils can typically expect large short- and long- term settlement.

 

OVERCONSOLIDATED SOILS

 

• Unlike many other types of materials, soils are not elastic.
• When stresses are applied to soils, they compress.
• However, when the same stress is removed, they do not rebound to the same height.
• When reloaded, the soils “remember” previously loaded conditions and compress to their historical level of stress.
• Soils that have previously been loaded to stresses above those created by the current soil overburden are considered to be overconsolidated.
• Foundations bearing on overconsolidated soils can typically expect less short- and long- term settlements.

 

DESICCATION

 

• All soils typically contain some moisture within the voids between soil particles. 
• When soils are dried, capillary tension tends to pull the soil grains together, causing the soil to shrink and lose volume.
• This action can cause the soil to become overconsolidated, as the capillary tension results in stress.

PPP Notes - Historical Preservation

(These notes are copied from the SOI's website @http://www.nps.gov/hps/tps/standguide/overview/choose_treat.htm)

 

THE SECRETARY OF INTERIOR'S STANDARDS FOR HISTORICAL PRESERVATION

 

The Standards are neither technical nor prescriptive, but are intended to promote responsible preservation practices that help protect our Nation's irreplaceable cultural resources. For example, they cannot, in and of themselves, be used to make essential decisions about which features of the historic building should be saved and which can be changed. But once a treatment is selected, the Standards provide philosophical consistency to the work.

 

The four treatment approaches are Preservation, Rehabilitation, Restoration, and Reconstruction, outlined below in hierarchical order and explained:

 

The first treatment, Preservation, places a high premium on the retention of all historic fabric through conservation, maintenance and repair. It reflects a building's continuum over time, through successive occupancies, and the respectful changes and alterations that are made.

 

Rehabilitation, the second treatment, emphasizes the retention and repair of historic materials, but more latitude is provided for replacement because it is assumed the property is more deteriorated prior to work. (Both Preservation and Rehabilitation standards focus attention on the preservation of those materials, features, finishes, spaces, and spatial relationships that, together, give a property its historic character.)

 

Restoration, the third treatment, focuses on the retention of materials from the most significant time in a property's history, while permitting the removal of materials from other periods.

 

Reconstruction, the fourth treatment, establishes limited opportunities to re-create a non-surviving site, landscape, building, structure, or object in all new materials. 

 

Choosing the most appropriate treatment for a building requires careful decision-making about a building's historical significance, as well taking into account a number of other considerations:

Relative importance in history. Is the building a nationally significant resource--a rare survivor or the work of a master architect or craftsman? Did an important event take place in it? National Historic Landmarks, designated for their "exceptional significance in American history," or many buildings individually listed in the National Register often warrant Preservation or Restoration. Buildings that contribute to the significance of a historic district but are not individually listed in the National Register more frequently undergo Rehabilitation for a compatible new use.

Physical condition. What is the existing condition--or degree of material integrity--of the building prior to work? Has the original form survived largely intact or has it been altered over time? Are the alterations an important part of the building's history? Preservation may be appropriate if distinctive materials, features, and spaces are essentially intact and convey the building's historical significance. If the building requires more extensive repair and replacement, or if alterations or additions are necessary for a new use, then Rehabilitation is probably the most appropriate treatment. These key questions play major roles in determining what treatment is selected.

Proposed use. An essential, practical question to ask is: Will the building be used as it was historically or will it be given a new use? Many historic buildings can be adapted for new uses without seriously damaging their historic character; special-use properties such as grain silos, forts, ice houses, or windmills may be extremely difficult to adapt to new uses without major intervention and a resulting loss of historic character and even integrity.

Mandated code requirements. Regardless of the treatment, code requirements will need to be taken into consideration. But if hastily or poorly designed, a series of code-required actions may jeopardize a building's materials as well as its historic character. Thus, if a building needs to be seismically upgraded, modifications to the historic appearance should be minimal. Abatement of lead paint and asbestos within historic buildings requires particular care if important historic finishes are not to be adversely affected. Finally, alterations and new construction needed to meet accessibility requirements under the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 should be designed to minimize material loss and visual change to a historic building.

PPP Notes - Contracts and Agreements

(These notes are compiled from AHPP)

AGREEMENTS WITH CLIENTS

 

• Normally, architects think of the contract as the primary legal document that records the promises that parties make to each other for specific purposes.
• A contract delineates services and compensation for those services. 
• A contract also allocates risk, helps the parties cope with change, and helps provide a method of resolving disputes.
• The agreement should reflect how architects are able to serve a wide array of client types and provide an equally wide range of services.
• An OWNER-ARCHITECT AGREEMENT must clearly allocate responsibility between the owner, architect and a host of design and construction specialists. 
• CONTRACTS are a wonderful way to communicate.  They can make explicit what might otherwise be unsaid.
• CONTRACTS also allocate rights and rewards, responsibilities and risk, aiding architects in managing their exposure to legal liability and business risks.
• Through CONTRACTS, architects can anticipate and prepare for future possibilities.
• Finally, CONTRACTS are useful as a means of resolving disputes.
• PROPOSAL VS. CONTRACT AGREEMENTS
• Early in most owner-architect relationships, architects are asked to prepare a proposal to provide professional services.
• Sometimes architects are asked to propose their services, other times, they are asked to propose compensation.
• Services and compensation should be based on a set of assumptions, what the architect will and will not do, what the owner will and will not do, the timing of services and payments, legal terms and conditions, and a host of other factors, implicit and explicit.
• Two important questions to ask:
• Are the assumptions (for scope, program, site, budget and schedule) clearly defined?
• Are these assumptions clearly understood?
• PROPOSALS AS OFFERS
• A proposal is the architect’s “offer,” giving the owner the power to accept it and establish a basis for business terms.
• The owner may either accept or ask for modifications.
• It is effective to say that your proposal contemplates the use of the terms and conditions “as in the current edition of AIA Document B141.”
• For instance, many clients assume that programming is part of the architect’s basic services (which isn’t the case).  By referring to B141 in the proposal, the architect has an objective basis for saying that programming services are not intended to be covered by basic compensation.
• ORAL AGREEMENTS AND LETTERS OF INTENT
• Many times the formal agreement does not seem quite ready for signature when the owner wants the architect to begin performing services.
• Performing work without WRITTEN AGREEMENTS can be quite risky.
• If this is the case, and work is performed without signatures, the architect may be deemed a “volunteer” to whom no compensation is granted.
• May turn out that the carefully allocated risk between parties is ignored, to the architect’s detriment.
• ORAL AGREEMENTS are valid, in general.  This isn’t the problem with oral agreements.  The problem is remembering what was agreed upon.  Or if there was an agreement.
• Assuming that one is unwilling or unable to withhold services until a formal written agreement is signed, an INTERIM AGREEMENT may be used.
• An interim agreement would state that you begin to perform services on the basis outlined in your proposal pending execution of the formal written agreement.
• Once the architect is performing services, the owner is likely to feel no urgency to sign a formal agreement.
• WHAT TYPE OF AGREEMENT MAKES SENSE?
• Architects are generally faced with three types of owner-architect agreements:
• The first is an owner-generated contract.  Public agencies, large institutions, or major commercial clients that have repeated and ongoing building programs will create these agreements.
• The second general source of owner-architect agreements will be from professional organizations other than the American Institute of Architects.
• The third source, and most often used agreement form, is one provided by the AIA.
• CHARACTERISTICS OF THE OWNER:
• Less Experienced Clients:
• Unrealistic expectations of architects.
• Require a lot of education during contract negotiations.
• Use the contract to communicate with these clients.
• Underfunded Owners:
• Require special attention during contract negotiations.
• May not want more development than they can afford.
• Important to develop a budget at the outset of the project.
• Owners Represented by Boards:
• Deserve special attention.
• School boards, church building committees, and condominium boards – as well as groups using public monies or funds – operate under “sunshine laws.”  Their constituents scrutinize everything they do.
• It is important and helpful if the architect can insist that the owner designate a representative to deal with the architect.  This is typically the board or committee chair.
• Litigious Clients:
• Pose special problems.
• Check with the local design community if you have any suspicions about the litigious nature of the client.
• Consult with a lawyer or check into court records.
• Make sure owners see you, the architect, as the provider of professional services and not just the provider of a product.
• A Program Manager:
• Typically hired by the owners who find themselves either without the experience or without the staff to manage a building program.
• The project managers, who may also be architects, do not fully replace the owner, but they can help the owner make decisions.
• CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PROJECT:
• Litigation history:
• Published claims data show that condominium projects, schools, and hospitals are involved in relatively large amounts of litigation.
• Committee clients often undertake these projects, and the owners are often not the users.
• Architect should recognize that the official client and the actual user may have different requirements, and that it is usually impossible to respond to two voices at once.
• Jurisdictional factors:
• Different states place different requirements on agreements for professional services.
• Architects must be licensed to practice architecture in the jurisdiction in which the project is located.
• It’s important to verify that you are properly licensed to practice where the project is located.  If you are not properly licensed, you may be subject to professional discipline, and frequently the law will deny you the right to use the courts of that state to collect fees.
• Design and construction characteristics:
• When experimental design or construction techniques or unusual site conditions are to be part of the project, contracts should be flexible enough to reflect the possibility of design changes and a longer-than-normal design period.
• On the construction side, such conditions may increase construction problems, change order requests, delays and construction costs.
• Use the contract to inform the owner of what to expect and to record the allocation of risks between owner and architect (as well as owner and contractor).
• Budgets and schedules:
• Perhaps the most unrealistic owner expectations are those related to budgets and schedules.
• Owners often confuse the construction budget with the project budget.  There are many costs associated with a project and construction is only one of them.
• Owners should be informed about this and provide for other foreseeable costs, such as legal and accounting fees, cost of the land, surveys and geotechnical studies, financing charges and costs of tests during construction, as well as FF&E.
• Architects should also be realistic with the owners about scheduling requirements.
• Consider making schedules part of the contracts.  If you do, do so in a way that recognizes which elements you, the architect, can control.
• SELECTING THE DELIVERY SYSTEM:
• The architect is the first, or one of the first, members of the eventual design-and-construction team to talk with the owner.
• As a result, architects have substantial influence on the selection of the project delivery method.
• Architects typically will suggest to the owner alternative methods for the owner to procure construction services and establish the basis for compensation for the cost of the work to the selected contractor.
• UNDERSTANDING THE RISK:
• Two primary sources of risk and liability are:
• 1. Poor communication with the owner
• 2. Negligence in the performance of those professional services being provided.
• Well-written contracts that include comprehensive descriptions of the services the architects will provide and the responsibilities of the owner are valuable risk-allocation devices.
• If the owner or anyone else claims the architect has been negligent, one element that must be proven is that the architect owed some duty to that person.
• The owner-architect agreement is a principal source of the duties of an architect on any specific project.  If there is no duty, there can be no negligence.
• Two examples of risk allocation in an agreement:
• 1. Some owners take the extreme position of asking architects “guarantee” their work.  Since architects have neither a legal nor a professional obligation to do work, accepting such language is unwise at best, and generally uninsurable.
• 2. Some architects, on the other hand, take a position at the other extreme, asking their clients to hold them harmless from any liability claim that may arise.  A client may, and should reject this request (for he/she requires some legal protection as well).
• Experienced owner and architects understand what is meant by the level, or degree, of PERFORMANCE architects are obliged to meet.  This degree of performance defines the level of written documentation and drawing documentation needed to communicate project requirements to others, particularly subcontractors.
• INDEMNIFICATION PROVISIONS:
• Construction disputes are usually multi-party disputes.
• In the early stages, it is often not clear to disinterested parties whether, or to what extent, design defects, construction defects, or operation and maintenance defects have caused the problem.
• Therefore, all principals involved – owner, architect, and contractor – are typically brought into any resulting claim or lawsuit. 
• Even without judgment against the architect, significant expense and effort may be incurred.
• In response, many architects have asked owners to indemnify and hold them harmless in cases where a third party has filed a claim in which the allegations are based on something other than sole negligence of the architect.
• INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY:
• Some owners will attempt to treat drawings and specifications as products that are complete in and of themselves.
• They may try to reuse those documents for other projects in other locations and circumstances – none of which was anticipated by the architect.
• Because this practice happens time and again, many architects make sure in their contracts that owners agree to hold them harmless when the documents are misused or used in unauthorized ways.
• DEVELOPING THE AGREEMENT
• Once these pre-contract issues have been resolved, it is possible to finalize the owner-architect agreement.
• STANDARD FORMS OF AGREEMENT:
• The AIA produces a series of standard owner-architect agreement forms. 
• The AIA publishes its standard documents in an electronic format. 
• All changes made that are additions to the AIA text are shown underlined; all deletions are crossed out.
• AIA Document B-141-1997, Owner-Architect Agreement, is the most commonly used agreement for published by the AIA.
• AIA Document B-151, Owner-Architect Agreement (Construction Projects of Limited Scope), is useful for less complex projects.
• Two key points:
• 1. The limited scope is not so much related to dollar value as to the complexity of the project and the relationships between design and construction team members.
• 2. Even uncomplicated projects can have major problems with significant liability exposure.  Make sure terms and conditions of the limited scope agreement form are appropriate for the project.
• B-141:
• Provides a comprehensive agreement between owner and architect that can be used for a wide variety of project types, client types, and delivery methods.
• A multi-part document which acts more than a single standard, allowing the core agreement between owner and architect to be adapted to a larger variety of owners and projects.
• The document has four key features:
• Initial Information:
• Two pages are provided to describe the initial information for a proposed project.
• Changes in services:
• B-141 makes the contract function as an adaptable document even after it has been signed.  This allows changes in services, which often arises as a project moves from design through construction.
• Division of responsibilities:
• In Article 2.8.3 of B-141 provides a simple matrix listing a series of expanded services.  The architect identifies those expanded services, commenting on whether he/she is responsible for them.  If he/she is, the description of that service is described in an appendix to B-141.
• Designing to the owner’s budget for the cost of work:
• According to Article 2.1.7.5, it is the architect’s obligation to match the design with the owner’s budget for the cost of the work.  If he/she does not come within the owner’s agreed-upon budget, the architect shall redesign at his or her own cost.
• Dealing with Changes:
• It is expected that both the architect and owner will modify the standard form of agreement, deleting clauses that are inapplicable or undesirable and adding clauses to reflect particular concerns.
• COPING WITH NONSTANDARD AGREEMENT FORMS:
• Some owners draft their own agreement forms. 
• They may be extensive modifications of the AIA documents.
• Caveats to architects:
• Be sure you understand the services to be performed, the duties being created, and the compensation being offered.
• If the proposed agreement includes provisions that appear to redefine your liabilities, suggest exclusions from coverage under your liability insurance, or require indemnification from the owner (be held harmless).
• Don’t be afraid to modify AIA documents to use in the situation, but have your attorney review the proposed agreement.
• Be sure these documents are coordinated with the requirements of other project agreements (for example, architect-consultant and owner-contractor agreements).
• MODIFYING THE AGREEMENT AFTER SIGNING
• Change is the only constant that may be relied upon as a project moves from inception to occupancy.
• Initial definition of project scope, program site, schedule, and budget may change as time passes and as design gives shape and substance to the project.
• Regulatory and financing review may require design changes.
• The processes of bidding and negotiating may suggest or require substitutions.
• Anyway one looks at it, design changes are inevitable, therefore, it is important to think of the owner-architect agreement – and all of the project agreements –as having some flexibility.
• With this in mind, architects should recognize the importance of recording changes as they occur.

 

PPP Notes - Project Management

(These notes are compiled from AHPP)

PROJECT TEAMS

 

• THE PROJECT MANAGER
• The central figure on a project team is the project manager (PM).
• This is the person in the firm who is responsible for managing a team of diverse people and interests.
• Must balance design, schedule, a budget concerns to meet client expectations.
• HISTORIC RESPONSIBILITIES:
• Client expectations:
• First responsibility of the project manager is to identify client expectations.
• Communication skills are important
• Accomplishment:
• Next important responsibility of the project manager is to get things done.
• Taking charge:
• A project team requires sensitive guidance and direction. 
• Must allow judgment and creativity within constraints of project.
• Service:
• The ability to manage client relationships successfully is an important skill.
• “Serve without being servile.”
• Willingness to tell the client something he/she does not want to hear.
• Meeting contractual obligations:
• Meet a firm’s obligations as outlined in the agreement for professional services with the client.
• INNOVATIVE ROLES:
• Marketing:
• The best way to secure additional work is to do good work.
• The more successful firms expect PMs to assume an active role in securing more new business.
• Thus, the PM leads the proposal effort.
• Financial:
• The PM needs to lead the effort to secure payment from the client.
• All projects start with a defined budget or at least an expectation of cost.
• It is up to the PM to define the client’s budget and establish a financial baseline before the project begins. 
• Profit must be included in the budget.
• Securing payment from the client has traditionally been considered to be the responsibility of the accounting department, but in the more successful firms PMs tend to lead this effort.
• PMs can also expedite review of invoices prepared by the firm’s accounting department to speed their issue to the client.
• PLACE IN THE FIRM:
• In smaller firms, the principals and PMs are synonymous.
• In larger firms, principals typically manage projects.  When he is too busy, or when the firm delegates day-to-day project management to someone who is not a principal, it is common to have a principal-in-charge.
• Where there is a principal-in-charge and a PM, the two need to build a strong relationship.  Any delegation of management responsibility should be clear, consistent, and devoid of second-guessing.
• TRAITS AND ABILITIES:
• Effective PMs are characterized by their ability to organize a design project and to deliver high-quality, on-time, and within-budget performance.
• Traits of a PM are:
• They are organized
• They are enthusiastic about achieving high standards
• They communicate well
• They provide motivation
• They delegate when appropriate
• They listen well and can interpret clearly team members’ issues and opinions.
• They attack every problem important to success.
• They are persuasive in a pleasing and nonbelligerent manner.
• They are conscious of time, know what it takes to accomplish a task, and is aware of time limitations.
• They know where to find the answers for technical and managerial problems.
• They appreciate the hard work of the team and they give credit to the group.
• They are result-oriented and keep the final outcome of the project in mind.
• MANAGING STAFF AND CONSULTANTS
• In addition to the PM, most architect projects involve at least one other person.  This can include a part-time draftsperson, a consultant, the contractor, and, of course, the client.
• SELECTING IN-HOUSE STAFF:
• The architecture firm’s staff forms the core of the project team.
• In-house staffing involves establishing the specific skills and the level of effort (measured in hours) needed to perform the services, identifying the people to work on the project, and balancing the needs of the project with those of the firm and its other projects.
• It’s natural for people in-house to compete for projects within the firm.  PMs need to recognize that the firm’s leaders must make personnel assignments that are best for the entire office, not just for one of its projects.
• DELEGATING TO OTHERS:
• One of the most difficult tasks for project managers is to delegate responsibility properly. 
• Delegation spread the workload, encourages initiative, and helps train additional staff.
• For each task, it is wise to:
• 1. Identify the team member most capable of doing it
• 2. Give that person the responsibility and authority he or she needs to complete the task
• 3. Establish the level of performance required
• 4. Define the completed activity or results
• 5. Agree on the level of effort and time required
• 6. Establish a suitable completion date
• 7. Establish interim milestones or other approaches for checking progress
• The level of checking is a function of the importance of the task and the confidence a PM has in the person doing the work.
• The PM can identify a level in confidence by checking on the team member doing the work – via “management by walking around.” 
• [A personal aside – PMs are the laziest sons of bitches in this world and are a net result of the bottom falling upwards]
• Task Assignments:
• Assigning work to in-house staff colleagues affords the PM an opportunity to plan at a more detail level.
• The PM may want to write down assignments or ask staff and consultants to take notes and furnish copies.  This helps maintain documentation of delegated work.
• Consultants and Other Design Team Members:
• The PM is responsible for the performance of the project consultants.
• Commitment can be heightened by involving consultants and other design team members in project planning and by applying many of the same ideas about motivation and recognition used with in-house staff.
• MANAGING THE CLIENT
• A PM’s ability to work with clients will determine the firm’s ability to meet objectives.
• The first step in working successfully with clients is to learn as much as you can about them and their organization.
• ASK:
• Who influences project decisions?
• Who is responsible for scope, quality, schedule, and budget?
• Who has the authority to modify the contract?
• Who will approve the firm’s services and evaluate the firm’s performance?
• CLIENT PERSONALITIES:
• Clients have personality types, work styles, behavioral traits.  Their needs, priorities, and operating style may be quite different.  A PM must adapt to this.
• Client may be a reader or a listener.  Find out which.
• CLIENT RELATIONSHIPS:
• Relationships between architects and clients can take many forms.
• At one end of the spectrum, the architect has a good deal of autonomy and is highly influential.  At the other extreme, are relationships when the firm is hired to do highly specific jobs within rigid constraints.
• Clients differ on the level of involvement they seek in their projects.
• CLIENT DECISIONS:
• The effective PM realizes that the client has engaged the firm to employ its professional skill and judgment; thus the PM is not a “yes” man.
• A wise PM proposes and discusses possibilities.
• The most damaging thing a PM can do is to lead a client into believing a project is in better shape than it actually is.
• When it becomes apparent that meeting the schedule or budget is becoming a problem, an effective manager informs the client as soon as possible.
• AGENCY COORDINATION:
• The PM assists the owner in coordinating with government agencies and regulatory bodies. 
• Building departments, environmental regulators, and others can cause schedule delays and budget overruns even if reviews and approvals are well prepared.
• EFFECTIVE TEAMS
• Self-motivation tends to be an inherent characteristic of people in architecture firms and other professional organizations.
• INDIVIDUALS AND PERSONALITIES:
• We know a great deal more about individual effectiveness.
• Often this begins with understanding the individuals involved in the project – the project manager, principal-in-charge (if there is one), key team members, and the client’s representatives – and how they gather information, make decisions from it and disseminate it accordingly.
• TEAM BUILDING
• An effective team is more than the sum of its individuals.
• One of the PM’s challenges is to build the team, or still better, to help the team build itself into an effective working group.
• Effective teams are:
• Small enough to convene and communicate easily.
• Capable of fostering interactive discussions.
• Mutually understanding of each other’s roles.
• An appropriate combination of functional/technical, problem-solving, and interpersonal skill.
• Those that have a truly meaningful, well-understood purpose.
• Composed of both team and individual goals.
• Those that plan for a specific set of team work products.
• Those that have a sense of mutual accountability.
• Willing to measure progress against specific goals.
• Teams that believe that only the “team can fail.”
• Effective teams have a working approach that:
• Is understood and agreed to by everybody.
• Capitalizes on (and enhances) the skills of those on the team.
• Provides for open interaction, fact-based problem solving, and results-based evaluation.
• Can be modified and improved over time.