PPP Notes - Architectural Design Team

(These notes are compiled from Spreiregen's ARE Exam Review)

CHAPTER FIFTEEN - THE ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN TEAM

STRUCTURING THE ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN TEAM

The architect can act as the sole provider of design services if his or her firm has experienced and qualified in-house staff that can provide the necessary engineering and other specialty services that are required on a project.  However, most architects typically form alliances with other firms to provide these services.  

In a typical alliance, the architect has the prime contract with the owner and then subcontracts services to other professional firms that act as the architect's consultants for a project.  Consultants can include structural, mechanical, electrical, plumbing, civil, or acoustical engineers; landscape design firms; kitchen design consultants; information technology/communications firms; and soil and construction testing services firms.  

Architects may also create joint ventures with other firms, creating a single project-based entity with other architecture, engineering, or construction firms that have specific areas of expertise or geographical experience.  An architect would typically form a joint-venture with a construction firm as part of a design/build delivery method, and would then act as a vendor rather than as an owner's agent.  Acting as a vendor would then require the architect to act on behalf of the joint-venture and its best interests rather than for the owner.

An architect may also act as one of several independent design and engineering firms hired by an owner.  In this situation, an owner would typically have some level of project and construction management capabilities to handle and coordinate the different contracts.

CONSTRUCTION DOCUMENTS OF CONSULTANTS

COMPLIANCE WITH CODE REQUIREMENTS AND REGULATIONS

A coordinated and detailed response to code requirements from the entire design team is essential to the success of a project.

Consider, for example, energy requirements.  Siting, preliminary selection of materials, and schematic organization of programmatic elements are largely within an architect's control.  These energy considerations must be balanced against other requirements more closely controlled by others, including structural requirements.

Fire protection also requires building team coordination.  The incorporation of interior courtyards or atriums, for example, may require engineering for fire protection.  Mechanical, electrical, and plumbing equipment are often critical elements in a fire protection plan.  When there are no physical barriers to the spread of potential fires, protection depends upon sensing devices, sprinkler systems, and air handling equipment.  These systems and building components are likely to be designed or selected by the engineering and fire protection consultants, rather than the architect.

The mechanical, plumbing, and electrical codes often have provisions that are the same as or that complement the building and life safety codes.  These common provisions are generally understood by most design professionals.  Architects, however, cannot always be certain that engineers and other consultants have complied with all code provisions.  As a practical matter, architects of complex projects may simply inform consultants about which codes are applicable, and ask them to research the detailed requirements.  This does not relieve architects, however, of responsibility to meet code requirements.  As leader of the design team and the party contracting with the owner for professional design services, the architect has prime responsibility for code compliance.  However, each engineering consultant must sign his or her drawings submitted for plan review by the code official and thereby also becomes responsible for compliance.  Moreover, the AIA Architect-Consultant Agreement (Document C141) states that the consultant is responsible for code compliance in the same manner and extent that the architect is responsible to the owner.

Initially, architects should verify that each member of the project team is working from the same set of code requirements.  Consultants should inform the architect about significant aspects of their work that are required by code.  Although codes generally allow several responses to requirements, they occasionally require specific design features.  Consequently, architects must know which design elements may change and which may not.

Architects are responsible to notify their consultants of design decisions that have code implications.  For example, fire walls must be clearly identified, so that air handling ducts passing through them include fire and smoke dampers.  Alternatively, the duct work could be arranged to avoid fire walls altogether.  Ceiling appearance is affected by the type and location of sprinkler heads.  If ceilings are required to be fire-rated, light fixtures and air handling grilles must be properly accommodated.

COMPLIANCE WITH DESIGN CRITERIA

AESTHETICS

Consultants can significantly influence the aesthetic character of a project.  Structural expression, for instance, is an important element in many architectural designs.  Structural engineers often collaborate with architectural designers to achieve such aesthetic goals.  The structural design of the cross-braced frame of the John Hancock Building and the bundled tube design of the Sears Tower, both in Chicago, are good examples of positive aesthetic qualities achieved through the mutual efforts of architects and their structural engineers.  On a smaller scale, the structural design of framing members influences floor-to-floor height, and thus overall building height, by establishing the floor structure's depth.  The relationship of spandrels to window openings is often critical to the proportions of a building's facade.  In many instances, the basic character of a building is a result of its structural expression, as in a domed structure or an air-supported roof.

Mechanical engineers may influence wall treatments by their response to energy considerations.  Their work can affect the character of the building's envelope, including its fenestration in relation to solar orientation.  On a smaller scale, the location and design of air diffusers can affect the aesthetic appearance of interior spaces.  Where mechanical equipment is exposed to view, architects normally ask to review and approve illustrations showing the equipment's physical appearance.  Unsightly fans on rooftops can seriously detract form an architect's design.

Electrical engineers, through selection and placement of light fixtures, can affect the aesthetic quality of spaces and ceilings.  With the development of open plan office design and the use of task lighting, electrical engineers may also influence the design and placement of partitions, furniture, and equipment.  Offices commonly contain video display equipment, computers, communications equipment, and electronic sensing devices for security and fire protection.  These items of equipment are generally selected by the electrical engineer, in consultation with the architect.

Food service consultants, lighting consultants, acoustical consultants, and art advisors may also influence a building's aesthetic qualities.  Architects must always inform their consultants of design criteria and the aesthetic effects they are trying to achieve.  Product data, study models, and photographs may be used to assess intermediate design progress, and are subject to the architect's final approval.  Architects must know enough about the details of their consultants' work to maintain design control.  At times, they may suggest alternate approaches or solutions more compatible with the desired aesthetic character of the project.

QUALITY CONTROL

Since many of the construction documents prepared by consultants are based on calculations, quality control is relatively easy to achieve.  Parameters are well defined and solutions can easily be checked.

Details that are shown on the drawings must be in conformance with engineering design assumptions.  If a structural engineer designs a moment-resisting frame, for example, the joint details must reflect that condition.  Architects may review consultants' construction documents to confirm that designs, details, and specifications are compatible with the consultants' calculations and assumptions.

An architect can support a consultant's quality control by informing him or her of all relevant design criteria to which the consultant must adhere, and by requiring the consultant to schedule periodic reviews by experienced senior staff members or peer review by others in the consultant's profession.

Although architects can check for internal consistency and for apparent compliance with standards, consultants are primarily responsible for quality control of their own work.

COST CONTROL

Estimating initial costs is an essential part of a consultant's work.  The percentage of the total budget allocated to each discipline varies with building type and project scope.  Architects often establish budgets for the major elements of construction work for incorporation into an overall project budget.  Once the budget is established, consultants are expected to design within its limits.  Consultants must, therefore, be accurate in predicting initial costs so that the architect can prepare a reliable overall project estimate.

Because operating costs tend to vary inversely with initial costs, a relatively low construction budget may imply that life cycle costs will be relatively high.  Consultants must evaluate conflicting considerations in order to produce optimum design solutions.  Likewise, architects must review each alternative to be sure that a consultant's decision serves not only his or her particular discipline, but the project as a whole.

Operational costs may be difficult to calculate.  Calculations involve more than the characteristics of the owner's organization and other factors affecting a facility, such as changing climatic conditions.  Engineering calculations may, in some instances, be based on assumptions different from actual conditions.  For example, a facility may be operated differently than anticipated by its program; calculations may be based on average conditions, in spite of the fact that extreme weather conditions may have been experienced in recent years; or fuel prices may have increased suddenly and unexpectedly.

It is important that basic design assumptions are realistic.  Architects should understand the operating characteristics of facilities, and they must ensure that design assumptions are accurate and that designed elements and systems will be appropriate.

Maintenance is an important aspect in the selection of products and systems.  Some mechanical and electrical systems are complicated, sophisticated, and sensitive.  If properly balanced, they can be efficient and economical.  But, they can also be troublesome and more difficult to maintain than simpler, less technically advanced systems.  Equipment maintenance costs vary with the size and skill of maintenance staffs.  Some design professionals have expanded their practices to include facilities management services, including the preparation of detailed operational and maintenance programs.

Specified systems must be properly installed, reliable, and receive scheduled maintenance to be successful.  The architect should determine that such systems are appropriate to the contractor's and building manager's degree of sophistication.

COMPATIBILITY WITH OTHER ELEMENTS

The size and weight of equipment is another design consideration.  Engineering drawings are largely diagrammatic, making it difficult to verify that design criteria have been met.  For example, a large pipe or duct may be represented by a single line on a drawing, but its actual size determines the clearances which must be provided and maintained.  Unfortunately, these considerations are sometimes ignored.  Architects can create similar problems by providing insufficient space for equipment and services during design development phases.  Allotted spaces might prove to be too small, and increasing the building's gross area may be difficult without disrupting the overall architectural solution and budget.

Operational characteristics of mechanical and electrical equipment must be considered by the design team before final selections and placement are made.  In critical cases, a special consultant such as an acoustical engineer may be retained to advise the design team on the placement, isolation, and construction of large air handling equipment.  Electrical distribution equipment can interfere with the operation of sensitive laboratory or hospital equipment.  In this case, the architect may ask the owner to provide the services of a special consultant to advise the design team on the placement, selection, and isolation of certain equipment.

EASE OF CONSTRUCTION

LABOR AND EQUIPMENT REQUIREMENTS

Architects and their consultants should determine that the systems they design can actually be built, considering the space, equipment, and labor required.   For example, if a floor system utilizes precast concrete T-beams, there must be sufficient room on the site to position the cranes required to erect these units.  If construction access is available from one side of a site only, construction must be able to proceed in only one direction.  Post-tensioned structures require accurate placement of tension cables and hydraulic jacks to stress tendons properly.  The availability of the skilled and experienced labor necessary for these operations influences the decision to utilize such systems.

Large air-conditioning chillers and cooling towers are often placed on the upper stories or roofs of multistory buildings.  If they cannot be disassembled and installed in sections, they must be lifted intact to their final locations.  Once in place, equipment and systems may require sophisticated pneumatic and electrical controls and precise balance in order to operate properly.  The installation of sensitive equipment requires the availability of skilled technicians.

In making design decisions, the architect's consultants must consider the limitations of local labor and the availability of special equipment.  They must be aware of the implications of applicable union rules.  Although contractors must determine the appropriate trade for each part of the work, both architects and consultants should follow established and generally accepted operating procedures, and understand their impact on design decisions.

SEQUENCING

Engineers and other consultants must see their drawings in terms of the construction sequence as well as the final product.  Very large components of mechanical equipment must be brought up to, and placed into, equipment penthouses after they are manufactured.  Buildings must remain structurally stable during construction.  Once installed, equipment must be accessible for servicing or to remove and replace malfunctioning units.

Architects should review consultants' construction documents with the construction process in mind.  The sequence of construction and workability of the scheme throughout the construction process must be considered.  Major building elements must fit into place at the appropriate time and without disrupting other ongoing activities.

SCHEDULING

It may be desirable to order certain components of a building well in advance of their installation.  Major HVAC components, large electrical transformers or switchgear, and curtain wall systems are frequently custom made for a particular project.  These elements are not generally in a warehouse waiting to be purchased.  Even standard catalog items are often manufactured only when specifically ordered and require a significant amount of lead time before delivery.

Architects' consultants must be involved in scheduling to enable major items to be available when needed.  Contractors are often selected too late to order long-lead-time equipment in a timely manner.  One solution is for the owner, on the advice of the architect and consultants, to order equipment directly.  When a contractor is subsequently selected, purchase orders are assigned from owner to contractor.  Upon delivery, the items are received and installed in the same way as if the contractor had been involved from the beginning.

Fast-track delivery procedures work generally the same way.  A project is divided into packages or stages of work, each of which represents a separate prime contract.  Starting construction and ordering items before all the construction drawings are completed helps to ensure the availability of products when needed, and tends to control costs during periods of rapid inflation.

Architects must be sure that consultants specify and package items according to proper criteria.  Information about a project's ultimate character and configuration may be limited when ordering.  Circumstances may change between the time orders are placed, or a construction package let, and the time an item is received, or final drawings completed.  An architect must work with consultants to determine important features while leaving other aspects open to inevitable change.  This may result in excess capacity in equipment or the need to alter designs to integrate with equipment or items already ordered.

Consultants must also be aware of overall construction schedules and, within these schedules, pertinent installation periods.  If a new chiller or cooling tower is required before summer, or a new boiler or heating plant before winter, engineering designs must allow equipment to be built and installed in time.  Or, if construction must occur during winter months, structural engineers may want to avoid the use of reinforced masonry, which requires special measures to protect mortar from freezing.

These concerns are especially applicable to renovation projects.  An old system may have to be changed to a new one, or an owner may require that a new wing or suite be ready before the old one is abandoned.  Some considerations will be apparent from construction documents, while others will not.  Architects must be certain that timing has been considered and is realistic.

An owner may rely upon the architect and the architect's consultants for pre-construction services such as cost estimating, scheduling and sequencing, and reviewing ease of construction.

CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT

With the advent of fast-track and other sophisticated methods of procurement, some owners have retained construction managers (CMs) to provide these pre-construction services.

Construction management may be defined as activities over and above normal architectural and engineering services, conducted during the pre-design, design, and construction phases, that contribute to the control of time and cost.

Despite this simple definition, the scope of the CM's functions vary widely from project to project.  The CM often joins the project team during the design phases and either remains as an adviser or becomes the constructor as well.

If the CM is an adviser, it acts as the owner's agent and provides the owner with impartial technical advice.  The appropriate AIA form is the Owner-Construction Manager Agreement (Document B801/CMa).

If the CM is the constructor, there are two appropriate AIA forms; either Document A121/CMc or A131/CMc.

INTERNAL COORDINATION OF CONSULTANTS' DOCUMENTS

The architect is the prime professional under contract to the owner, and as such, liable for his or her consultants' work.  Prudent architect, therefore, try to make certain that their consultants provide appropriate levels of professional service.  There are some practical limits, however.

One limit is that architects cannot check each consultant's documents for internal consistency and coordination.  That is the responsibility of each consultant.  If an electrical engineer specifies one type of lighting fixture, the drawings should not show another.  Dimensions should be accurate and drawings and specifications should be coordinated.  The AIA Architect-Consultant Agreement (Document C141) specifically requires the consultant to be responsible for coordinating his or her own work.

When a consulting firm combines more than one engineering discipline, coordination becomes more complicated.  For example, structural, HVAC, plumbing, and electrical work may all be done in different departments of the same consulting firm.  Generally, a consultant's documents must be made internally consistent by that consultant.  Structural and mechanical documents must be checked against each other for conflicts prior to being sent to the architect.  Someone in the consulting firm must be responsible for this interdisciplinary checking.

OVERALL COORDINATION OF CONSULTANTS' DOCUMENTS

FORMAT FOR SPECIFICATIONS

Specifications prepared by an architect and his or her consultants are bound together into a Project Manual.  All the work of the individual parties must be coordinated to produce a unified document, not a collection of individual parts.  To accomplish this, architects establish formats for consultants to follow.

Coordination extends from simple considerations, such as the color of the paper on which the specifications of different consultants is printed, to the format and numbering system used.  The consultants' input to bid forms, including instructions to bidders, and to Division One, the general requirements of the specifications, must be established.  Overall, each consultant's work must be coordinated with that of the architect and other consultants.

The architect must require that his or her consultants participate in the preparation of the requirements of Division One, so that their individual specification sections are appropriately coordinated.  The architect is the one professional on a project team with the required perspective to coordinate the many diverse elements of a Project Manual.

DIAGRAMMATIC MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL DRAWINGS

Most construction documents prepared by mechanical and electrical consultants are diagrams or schedules.  HVAC drawings show dimensions of ducts.  Major pieces of equipment are shown, but other physical conditions are not represented.  Duct dimensions may not include the thickness of required insulation.  Electrical documents are more diagrammatic.  Typically, wiring is indicated in floors or in ceilings, as are home runs to panelboards.

Actual conduit locations, however, are usually determined by contractors in the field.  Plumbing drawings are less diagrammatic than HVAC and electrical drawings, but pipes and fittings are not drawn to scale.  The exact location of piping may be determined by the contractor in the field.

While these different methods of representation are logical, checking and coordination is difficult.  Architects can overlay drawings of the various consultants to spot potential conflicts.  Even where lines do not cross in such overlays, this does not guarantee adequate clearances, since the diagrams may not be precise enough.  Overlay drafting and CAD make it easier for architects to identify and resolve conflicts before they become construction problems.

Serious construction problems may be caused by uncoordinated drawings.  Contractors may have problems installing mechanical ducts and electrical conduits within the space actually provided.  For example, walls may be framed without adequate space for plumbing lines.  Architects must address such potential problems when checking the consultants' documents.

THE SUSTAINABLE PROJECT DESIGN TEAM

Is a sustainable design organized and implemented differently than a conventional design?

DESIGN TEAM

What kind of design team is necessary for a sustainable project?

The scope of sustainable design invites an expanded team approach, which may include the following:

- Architects or engineers (structural, MEP) with energy modeling experience

- A landscape architect with a specialty in native plant material

- A commissioning expert (if LEED employed)

- An engineer/architect with building modeling experience

The design team for a sustainably designed project tends to have a larger pool of talent than a typical architectural project.  Because the buildings will be more holistic, the sustainable design team will have additional consultants that bring a broader range of experience and innovation to the project.  Wetlands, scientists, energy efficient lighting consultants, native plant experts, or commissioning engineers, are examples of the additional talent that may be added to sustainable design project.

As with any architectural design, there is a hierarchy of design goals:

- Initial imperatives such as budget, timing, image, and program necessities. - Subjective goals such as a functionality improved and more pleasing work environment, pleasing color schemes, and landscaping that complements the architecture.

- Specific goals such as more open space, more natural lights, less water usage, and adjacency to public transportation.

And with the inclusion of sustainability there may be additional goals:

- Initiatives that are specific to sustainability such as fewer toxins brought into the space, daylighting in all spaces with people occupancies, less overall energy consumed, less water usage, adjacency to public transportation, and improved indoor air quality.

- Desire to exceed existing standards such as ASHRAE, USGBC, or American Planning Association (APA).

SUMMARY

The integration of the design team typically relies on the architect's ability to coordinate and manage the resources at hand.  As challenging as the task may be, it is ultimately one of the most important steps towards the realization of a successful project.  An overall understanding of the typical consultant's responsibilities and how they affect the scheduling and the execution of a project are expected from all candidates for the Programming, Planning & Practice exam.